By
Cheryl Brown, M.Ed.
Revised November, 2003
Teacher behaviors
Teacher behaviors and their
effect on achievement and student attributes are widely discussed in the
literature and researched extensively. Although, Dunkin and Biddle (Brophy,
1988) caution that, prior to the 1970s, research related to teacher behaviors
did not always include rigorous standards for definitions of teacher behavior,
did not use adequate sampling techniques, did not report descriptive data, and
did not make use of appropriate inferential statistics. During the
1970s, the Office of Education (OE) and the National Institute of Education (NIE)
became involved in funding large-scale field studies and experiments on
process-product research. These federal agencies also sponsored
conferences that allowed researchers to share information on teaching.
Ned Flanders and his associates conducted the most useful research prior to
the 1970s. (Brophy, 1988) Five of their studies between 1959 and 1967
included measures of adjusted student achievement. Findings indicated
that teacher talk correlated positively with achievement: "negative
correlations for restrictiveness and criticism tend to be stronger and more
consistent than the positive correlations for praise and acceptance of
students (especially in the data for student achievement)," (p. 30) while
praise and sustained acceptance often correlated in opposite directions in
reference to achievement. Flanders's group found that flexibility and
achievement produced the most consistent positive correlations indicating the
importance of tailoring teacher behavior to each situation. According to
the Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, teachers must express
that all students have the ability to be successful.
Traits negatively
correlated with achievement gain include restrictiveness, negative authority,
and ignoring, belittling, harassing, shaming, and excluding students. (Brophy
& Good, 1984) Achievement gain also correlated negatively with strong
teacher criticism; although, Brophy and Good make the assumption that teacher
behavior is just one component of poor classroom managers or poor instructors.
Gary Bridge and his colleagues (The Culture of an Effective School,
1984) reviewed three studies that found high teacher turnover is negatively
correlated with math and verbal achievement. This does not make the
assumption that high teacher turnover is the cause, but could be related to
the school itself, in that, teachers in low-achieving schools might feel
discouraged and seek to work in another environment. Many researchers
have found commonalties among successful teacher behaviors, although Brophy
and Good (1984) agree with Flanders who noted that optimal teacher behavior
may vary according to the demands of the current situation. Rosenshine (Brophy
& Good, 1984) found consistent, but not always significant, relationships
between certain teacher behaviors and achievement. Teacher behaviors
that showed a positive correlation with achievement include warmth,
businesslike orientation, enthusiasm, praise and acceptance of student ideas,
flexibility, and pleasant personality with the ability to apply a personalized
touch to each student, consistency, organization, and a focus on academic
activities that include a variety of materials and learning opportunities.
The classroom atmosphere and structure perpetuated by a successful teacher
include being knowledgeable about the subject matter, the ability to involve
all students through individualizing, pacing, and an appropriate wait-time for
answers to questions. Rashed (Brouillet, Marshall, & Andrews, 1987)
found that the use of broad questions followed by a longer wait-time had a
significant positive influence on student achievement. Other facets
include assigned work that is pertinent and close monitoring of student
progress. The teacher encourages students to put forth good effort and
helps them understand that they are personally responsible for their academic
progress. Students perceive the more effective classroom manager as a better
teacher, but also as friendly, consistent, predictable, capable of taking
responsibility for mistakes, and as someone who values each student.
(Berliner, 1986)
Teacher praise of students
is a teacher behavior that appears to produce conflicting results.
Crawford (Brophy, 1988) found in elementary level Title I students that the
frequency of praise from the teacher resulted in a negative relationship with
achievement gain. In opposition to that, Brophy (1988) took the position
that praise rates would have a weak, but positive, correlation with
achievement especially in schools that served low SES families or low
achievers. However, Brophy did augment this train of thought by stating
that a supportive learning environment combined with a patient, encouraging
teacher would enhance achievement more than copious amounts of public praise.
Bluestein (1985) corroborates this perspective by stating that praise should
be administered privately.
Bloom (Percy, 1990) found
that approximately 25% of the variance in achievement may correlate with the
quality of communication in the classroom. According to The Culture
of an Effective School (1984), more effective teachers create a classroom
atmosphere of mutual respect, while their less effective counterparts tend to
have classrooms that are marked by dissension and conflict. In order to
reduce negative student-to-student interactions, the relationship that the
teacher develops with the students must be friendly and positive. An
atmosphere of trust in the classroom must be established in order for students
to perceive feedback on their behavior as a positive. Teachers, who are
cognizant of their “modeling,” understand that social reinforcements for
positive behavior and consistent consequences for negative behavior will
provide a respectful, nurturing learning environment for the students. (CSPV,
2001)
Each teacher must
incorporate a management style that fits their belief system, but should stay
within research-based guidelines asserts Bowman (1983). Limit- setting,
consequences that emphasize development of student responsibility,
nonjudgmental enforcement of classroom rules, consistency, high academic and
behavioral expectations that communicate the importance of learning to the
student, and teaching students to learn from their mistakes are all research
driven components that are employed by a successful classroom manager.
“If desirable behavior is
to be learned, educators must know that it must be taught and must commit
themselves to developing methods, procedures, and practices for teaching it.”
(Wayson, 1985, p. 227) Brophy (1985) expresses a similar point of view:
"Theory and research on classroom management have concentrated mostly on how
teachers can control student behavior rather than on how teachers can develop
self-guidance in their students." (p. 234) Self-guidance or learning to adapt
to the accepted norms of the current setting is one of the goals of the
educational system and is stimulated through socialization with significant
others who, for the majority of students, are their peers. Combs (1985),
through his work in humanistic-experiential psychology, delineated four basic
principles that enhance a person's understanding of self-discipline: (a)
perceptions determine self-discipline; (b) persons who are self-disciplined
view themselves positively; (c) success reinforces self-concept and
self-discipline; and (d) belongingness is a requisite for self-discipline.
“Discipline encourages learning, responsibility and self control.” (CSPV,
2000, p. 1)
An important ingredient in
the development of self-guidance is self-esteem. Lerner (1986) has a strong
reaction to the recent trend of enhancing self-esteem.
“Earned self-esteem is
based on success in meeting the tests of reality--measuring up to
standards--at home and in school. It is necessarily hard-won and
develops slowly, but it is stable and long-lasting, and provides a secure
foundation for further growth and development. It is not a precondition
for learning but a product of it. It is the polar opposite of what I
call the 'feel good now' self-esteem fashionable today. Standards and
demands on students to keep working until they meet them, are critical steps
toward earned self-esteem . . .”(p.33)
Bluestein (1985) states
that teachers who develop responsible students operate from an authoritative
rather than an authoritarian point of view and are less judgmental. "The
behavior of the obedient child and of the responsible child may 'look' the
same, but their motivation and commitment are different." (p. 57) Offering
students information and encouraging self-choice, while allowing them to make
decisions independently teaches them to problem-solve and accept the
consequences of their behavior, both positive and negative. Brophy and
Good (1984) support Bluestein's stand by stressing the importance of teacher
support of the student's self-concept and presenting the teacher as an
authoritative helper who monitors student progress. Gathercoal (1987)
supports the idea that teachers should refrain from parenting students in
matters of discipline and accept them as young persons with rights and
freedoms. According to Combs (1985), responsibility and cooperation are
learned behaviors. Successful peer interactions are more important than
the curriculum and peers have a more powerful effect than teacher-student
relationships.
Until students are allowed
to have and to begin to feel a proprietary interest in school and classroom
rules, classroom control and a good learning environment will always be a risk
. . . Students are far more likely to develop good character and become
accountable when they are provided an opportunity to learn and actively
participate in a democratic learning environment. (p. 29)
Effective managers of
students consistently monitor student compliance with classroom expectations,
enforce consequences for late or unacceptable work, and are prepared to punish
repeated offenders positively and prescriptively. (Good, 1988)Richmond (1990)
indicates that a teacher who uses coercion as a means of control affects
student motivation negatively, which in turn affects learning. There
appears to be a positive relationship between learning and the development of
positive student attitude toward the teacher.
During the l960s and l970s,
management of student behavior focused on a reactive approach. Many
researchers and practitioners developed methods of dealing with children's
misbehavior after it happened. During the l970s, process-product
research came to the forefront. Early research found that effective
teaching and skill in classroom management had a positive relationship.
These findings drew educators toward a preventive approach in dealing with
disruptive student behavior. (Gettinger, 1988) A reactive discipline
program becomes more centered on disruptive students rather than focusing on
the students who behave appropriately. Gettinger states that preventive
or proactive classroom management includes three characteristics that
distinguish it from other techniques:
1.
It is preventive, rather than reactive, in nature.
2.
It integrates behavioral management methods with effective instruction
to facilitate achievement.
3.
It focuses on the group dimensions of classroom management rather than
the behavior of individual students.
Brophy and Good (1984)
outlined several guidelines that they felt should be followed in order to
manage student behavior successfully.
1.
Use an informative style rather than a dictatorial style when setting
limitations within the classroom.
2.
Establish a rationale for the expectations.
3.
Emphasize the positive effects of the classroom structure to enable
students to internalize the rules.
4.
Be authoritative; students will not develop the necessary life skills
if there is little to no structure.
5.
Corrections of a student's behavior should emphasize the desired
positive behavior.
6.
Punishment should not be invoked with anger or vengefulness.
Sherman (1981) agrees with
these guidelines in order to foster a preventive rather than a reactive
approach to inappropriate student behaviors. Brophy and Putnam (Kuder,
1986) found that preventing behavioral problems was the most effective way to
manage a classroom successfully. "Managing behavior should be a
continuous process, not something that takes place after an incident." (Kuder,
1986, P. 533) McDaniel (Gettinger, 1988) states that teachers can
anticipate behavioral problems and intervene by inserting the student's name
into the instruction, moving near the student, or using nonverbal clues.
Evertson, Weade, Green and Crawford (1985) and Fitzpatrick (1985) support a
preventive approach, which can be accomplished by initially planning
systematic rules and procedures that monitor and provide feedback for academic
work and student behavior followed by presenting the behavioral expectations
to students. Kuder (1986) adds the following suggestions based on
research and experience: (a) involve students in the decision-making
process when establishing classroom rules; (b) through continuous monitoring
intervene before the situation escalates; (c) when a problem arises, deal with
a student privately to avoid "loss of face," (d) consistently enforce the
classroom rules with the understanding that occasions for exceptions will
arise; and (e) if students are unable to function within a whole group
framework, divide the class into small groups. Wayson (1985) agrees with
Kuder that quiet interventions avoid a win-lose confrontation, which otherwise
would create a hostile classroom environment and demean the student.
Bluestein (1985) and Glasser (1985) also support Kuder's suggestions by adding
that allowing students to make choices, without moralizing or initiating a
power struggle, gives them the opportunity to maintain a sense of control over
their lives, which leads to self-motivation, initiative, and active
participation. In addition, outlining consequences (based on rules of
order that benefit and protect the group) rather than just administering
punishments allows the teacher to detach him or herself emotionally from a
disciplinary situation. Lasley (1985), supporting these components from
the viewpoint of a different discipline, gleaned information from
anthropological writings and found that nonaggressive adult models and
learning to cooperate with others for the good of the whole are instrumental
in the development of nonaggression. (Nonaggression is defined as the
ability to control emotions, to maintain composure during conflicts, and to
interact socially in a selfless manner.) With these components in place
teachers can increase task engagement, experience less disruptive student
behavior, and be involved in smoother instructional activities.
The Middle School,
Rockport, Massachusetts project The Culture of an Effective School,
(1984) focused specifically on the development of behavioral management
strategies. Parents and staff worked on improved personal interactions.
The immediate effects were (a) a decrease in teacher tension, (b) more open
communication between parents and staff, (c) enhancement of behavioral
management skills, (d) improved skills in conceptualizing, designing, and
implementing modified academic programs, and (e) significantly improved
academic and behavioral performance on the part of the students.
Student discipline
procedures have changed dramatically over the past ten years, moving from a
primary focus on specific children with problem behaviors and each classroom
teacher using a singular format to proactive school-wide systems that
systemically define, teach, and support appropriate behaviors for all students
throughout the day in all areas of the school campus. This approach
establishes a school culture in which students encourage responsible behaviors
and discourage negative behaviors among themselves, thus allowing teachers to
focus on teaching students rather than controlling students. (OSEP Technical
Assistance Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports) The
following figure from the OSEP document illustrates the concept of effective
school-wide discipline, which takes into consideration all areas and
individual student needs.
According to Gips and
Burding (1983), encouragement of parental participation in student discipline
is also important because it makes use of a larger pool of problem-solvers, it
provides parents with ownership bridging the gap between home and school, and
it helps professionals and parents develop trust and confidence in each other.
As a result, students benefit from unified support and control of home and
school.
Fouts (1999) quotes a
national study, Order in the Classroom: Violence, Discipline, and
Student Achievement (1998), which found “Another empirical assumption
supported by this research is that the stakes in maintaining order are high.
The consequence of student disorder is not merely more disorder; disorder also
erodes the learning environment for all students as indicated by lower student
achievement gains.” The Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence
in the Fact Sheet Reducing School Violence, (1998) indicates that an
emphasis on academics, behavioral norms that are clear, nonviolent and
prosocial, rules enforced consistently and fairly, while providing an
emotionally supportive atmosphere seems to reduce disorder in schools.
Therefore, the lack of these components would lead to negative student
behaviors in schools.
"Classroom management is
seen as primarily a matter of telling and showing willing but ignorant
students what to do, rather than enforcing compliance from students who know
what to do but tend not to do it on their own." (Brophy, 1985, p. 233)
Montero-Sieburth (1989) takes the position that the primary purpose of
classroom management is to focus on academics, not on behavioral management.
Kounin's observational study in 1970 (Gettinger, 1988) analyzed well-managed
classrooms and poorly managed classrooms. Well-managed classrooms
functioned smoothly with few disruptions and were well organized, while less
effective classrooms experienced frequent disruptions with a large amount of
time spent on discipline and transitions were lengthy and chaotic.
Kounin expected to find that the teachers of the well-managed classrooms would
possess more effective disciplinary techniques. Surprisingly, he found
that both were approximately equal in dealing with student misbehavior, the
variance was that the successful classroom managers were more efficient at
minimizing behavioral problems by intervening before the misbehavior
escalated.
Brophy (1985) and Kuder
(1986) cite Kounin who delineated key behaviors of successful classroom
managers: (a) "withitness" - awareness of all parts of the classroom at
all times, (b) overlapping - the ability to do more than one thing at a time,
and (c) signal continuity and momentum during academic lessons. Research
supported behaviors and characteristics of effective classroom managers
include (a) preparation of the physical environment and beginning the school
year by establishing rules and procedures that are reiterated and reinforced
as necessary throughout the school-year, (b) monitoring the entire classroom
at all times, (c) prior preparation for lessons in order to maintain the flow
of academics, (d) preparation of interventions to minimize disruption to the
lesson if the need arises, (e) academic assignments that are diverse and
challenging, and (f) accountability procedures that are clear and consistent.
(Brophy, 1988; Fitzpatrick, 1985; Gettinger, 1988; & Kuder, 1986)
Effective classroom
organization allows for active teaching in which time is spent on academics
rather than on administrative details. (Bluestein, 1983 & Brophy, 1988)
Brooks and Hawke (Berliner, 1986) found that effective classroom managers
begin lessons quickly in a businesslike tone of voice, included academic and
behavioral expectations, and asked for questions. This approach seems to
convey a sense of the importance of the learning to take place. As a
result, students of the successful classroom manager showed higher gains in
achievement. According to Stallings et al. (Brophy, 1988), the quantity
of instruction to student correlates positively with academic achievement.
Negative correlates of achievement include: (a) little teacher interaction
with students, (b) time spent on organization rather than instruction, (c)
teacher providing students with a choice of activities, (d) silent reading or
independent written assignments rather than instructing the students, (e)
outside interruptions and/or social interactions that use instructional time,
and (f) the frequency of disciplinary interventions. Achievement testing
supports research-based characteristics of a well-managed classroom cited by
Sanford, Emmer, & Clements (1983):
1.
Students are highly involved in teacher-led academic instruction.
2.
Students understand classroom expectations and are usually successful
in accomplishing them.
3.
Wasted time, confusion, and disruptions are kept to a minimum.
4.
The pleasant, relaxed classroom environment is work-oriented.
In addition, Sanford, et
al. emphasize that this type of classroom is accomplished by careful planning
and detailed thinking about procedures and student behavior. A select
number of appropriate rules are posted and a realistic system of consequences
is in place. Hargreaves, Hester, and Mellor (Gettinger, 1988) agree that
classroom rules should be succinct. Too many rules contribute to
management problems because it becomes overwhelming for the teacher to enforce
all rules consistently. Gathercoal (1987) contributes to that philosophy
by stating that although the rules should be concise, they should be written
in broad terms so students cannot use the defense that their inappropriate
behavior was not covered by the rules. Gettinger (1988) confirms that
these facets allow a teacher to manage the flow of information in the
classroom, which is an important component of a successfully managed
classroom.
The Culture of an
Effective School
cites research that confirms more effective learning takes place in a secure,
orderly, nondisruptive environment. Glasser (1985) concurs by asserting
that students find complete freedom threatening, but desire the freedom to
make choices within a structure. A disruptive setting activates the
lower parts of students' brains that are tapped in times of higher stress such
as social challenges or physical threats. "An orderly/controlled
environment allows the neocortex to function efficiently, facilitating
learning of cerebral subjects." (Glasser, p. 3) Berliner (1986) and
Casanova (1986) support the concept that students prefer an orderly, efficient
learning environment as shown through higher achievement gains in classrooms
that meet this criterion. The physical environment of a classroom
enhances achievement according to Kuder (1986) who stresses arranging
furniture to enhance teaching, students' personal space, and taking into
account students' individual needs concerning the environment. Arranging
a psychologically comfortable classroom increases the opportunity to provide a
preventive rather than a reactive teaching environment.
Gettinger (1988) states the
first few days of class are critical in establishing the climate of the
classroom. Classroom rules and procedures should be clearly explained
and enforced. It is important to spend the first few weeks helping the
students learn rules and procedures. Teachers of younger students need
to spend more time than teachers of older students, as there is a carry-over
from year to year of basic school socialization procedures. Minger (Gettinger,
1988) feels that a developed routine of classroom procedures decreases
disruptions because students know what is expected.
Interestingly, researchers
have found a quiet, smoothly run classroom that allows for high task
engagement does not necessarily correlate with achievement. According to
Doyle (Gettinger, 1988) successful classroom management does not always
correlate with achievement as teachers may sacrifice challenging assignments
that decrease students' comfort levels in exchange for lower level assignments
that allow the teacher to maintain classroom order with less effort.
Stalling (Montero-Sieburth, 1989) also found that student learning is not as
affected by time available to learn, but is affected by how the time is used.
On the other hand, Leach and Tunnecliffe (Montero-Sieburth, 1989), who
completed a study in Australia, found that task engagement correlated strongly
with achievement and was responsible for approximately 58% of the variance.
Crawford (Brophy, 1988) stated that the type of time-on-task behaviors that
correlate with achievement gain involves the active participation of the
teacher through directed teaching or active supervision of independent
activities, successful monitoring, and additional classroom management
techniques that maximize time-on-task and minimize disruptions.
During 1984, four schools
in Hawaii participated in the Youth Development Projects, which is a program
aimed at preventing delinquency. The treatment included social skills
training, cooperative learning, and parent-school liaison. Positive
significant results were found in the categories of absenteeism, tardiness,
disciplinary referrals, classroom management, and social skills. Because
of the improved classroom environment and more time-on-task, teachers posited
that student achievement had improved; however, this position was not
supported by an increase in grade point averages. (Nanos, 1988) Brophy
cautioned that a more effective research approach would concentrate on the
opportunity to learn and the quality of the instruction, rather than assuming
increased time-on-task improves achievement.
Research has shown that
best practices in relation to whole school reform include the following
components: a) identification of need, b) investigation of programs
and/or approaches, c) ask questions of or visit a sampling of schools
currently using possible programs, d) staff vote, e) materials and training,
f) site-based team to maintain program, g) supportive administrative
leadership, and h) commitment to resources needed. Fouts (1999)
referenced Research You Can Use to Improve Results, (1999), Northwest
Regional Education Laboratory, to discuss the following best practices for
school discipline/citizenship programs:
Teachers Emphasize the
Importance of Learning
Teachers Provide
Instruction and Practice in Citizenship Skills
Teachers Make Efficient
Use of Learning Time
Teachers Establish Clear
Discipline Policies and Apply Them Fairly and Consistently
Administrator and Teachers
Assure that School Time is Used for Learning
Administrators and
Teachers Establish and Enforce Clear, Consistent Discipline Policies
Administrators and Other
Leaders Continually Strive to Improve Instructional Effectiveness
Schools are discovering
that the most effective means of reducing discipline referrals is to become
proactive with school discipline. Collaborative development of
school-wide rules that are clear, all-encompassing and seen as fair must then
be communicated to the school community and consistently followed.
Consequences must be reasonable for the offense and combined with the teaching
of strategies that address the behavior. (Dwyer, Osher, & Warger, 1998)
School safety begins with a
teacher and staff commitment toward creating a safe, welcoming school
environment. Plans that are developed to address this share many
features, but are tailored to each school’s individual needs. (CSPV, 1998)
There are key developmental tasks pertinent to each age group that must be
mastered. The development of self-regulation is important for children
ages 2-5. Middle childhood, ages 6-11, includes developing normative
beliefs about aggression and interpersonal negotiation skills.
Adolescent needs include development of a consistent peer group and the
consolidation of personal and ethnic identities. (CSPV, 1998) The
National School Safety Center (CSPV, 2000) determined that student perspective
of the school climate is impacted by the degree of student involvement in
learning; comfortable peer relationships; support from teachers, buildings
that are clean, supervised, and safe; clear understanding of rules and feeling
that conflicts and infractions are dealt with consistently and fairly; and
involved in the decision-making to improve the school. In addition,
parent participation with their children and at the school is considered to be
a critical factor in achieving safe schools. (CSPV, 2000)
The Center for the Study
and Prevention of Violence (1998) makes several recommendations that support
safe schools. A campus that is safe and welcoming from the moment the
students enter campus, which induces a climate of ownership and pride support
a safe school climate. Safe practices in reference to student behavior
and management include the development and enforcement of a dress code and
sufficient supervision by adults. In order for staff to provide
appropriate behavioral support they must have training in behavior management.
Students should be actively involved in developing and maintaining a safe
school environment. “Firm, fair and consistent discipline is fundamental
to making school campuses safe and secure….The number of rules isn’t as
important as the intent…There should be a reason for each rule and rules
should not be harsh.” (CSPV, 2000) In addition, effective discipline
codes are straightforward and clear, reflect best practices, include
appropriate penalties, are fairly and consistently enforced with all students,
prompt resolution of problems, parent acknowledgement of behavioral
expectations and discipline procedures for students, and are economical,
enforceable and practical. On-going review of the school-wide system
that includes input form the school community of students, staff and parents
is another critical element of effective programming.
Positive behavioral support
(PBS) integrates “behavioral science, practical interventions, social values
and a systems perspective.” (Sugai, et al., 1999, p. 7) Through the
application of PBS, research-validated methods are employed school-wide to
improve the school environment for all children by reducing the effects of
negative behaviors and validating positive behaviors. In place of
coercion to achieve desired behaviors, emphasis is placed on modifying adult
behavior and providing improved learning environments. In other words,
it is not about “fixing” the child, but about fixing the environment.
Therefore, all contexts are considered in implementation such as the
community, family, school, classroom, to and from the classroom and school and
the individuals themselves. School-wide positive behavioral support
provides a continuum of support for all students.
Walker, et al. (1996)
describe this continuum as Primary Prevention, Secondary Prevention, and
Tertiary Prevention. Most students, 80-90%, do not have serious problem
behaviors and are supported under a school-wide system, which is the universal
intervention. See diagram that follows.
Continuum of behavioral
support “in which prevention is emphasized and intensity of problem behavior
and context is considered.” (Sugai, et al., 1999, p. 11-12)
The components of the Make
Your Day model are aligned with best practices in the areas of student
discipline, classroom management, school-wide discipline and positive behavior
support (PBS). All members of the school community play a part in
creating a safe school environment, all parties have a personal responsibility
to “maintain order, demonstrate mutual respect and caring for one another…”
(Dwyer, Osher, & Warger, 1998, p. 2) Classroom rules and expectations
are clear and succinct, but essentially cover all possible behaviors and
students have advance knowledge of the consequences for interfering behaviors.
(Gathercoal, 1987 & Gettinger, 1988; Fouts, 1999; CSPV, 1998) Teachers,
through continuous monitoring of student behavior and intervening immediately
in order to avoid an escalation of disruptive behaviors, take a preventive or
proactive rather than reactive approach. (Brophy & Good, 1984 & Gettinger,
1988) The teacher administers discipline from an authoritative rather
than an authoritarian platform by enforcing limits and consequences without
moralizing or judging. (Bowman, 1983 & Glasser, 1985) Interventions are
invoked privately avoiding a power struggle with and "loss of face" for the
student. (Bluestein, 1984; Kuder, 1986 & Wayson, 1985) The
administration of steps involves a specific, consistent structure that
includes a brief conversation that helps students understand the behavior that
led to the use of steps. In contrast to many other approaches or in
schools without a school-wide program, steps “…are actually quite mild
discipline procedures and consequences for students…” (Fouts, 1999)
An emphasis on student
responsibility, development of self guidance and problem-solving skills,
establishment of a proprietary interest, earned self esteem, and a classroom
environment of mutual respect are components supported by research and
writing. (Berliner, 1986; Bluestein, 1985; Bowman, 1983, Brophy, 1984; Combs,
1988; & Purkey, 1985) In addition, students are taught to take
responsibility for their actions and consequences are the result of choices
they made. Reinforcing the community values such as respectfulness, kindness
and honesty promotes the development of good citizenship and character.
(Dwyer, Osher, & Warger, 1998)
The period by period
self-evaluation provides students with a predictable, consistent classroom
organization. (Berliner, 1986; Brophy & Good, 1984; & Gettinger, 1988)
Frequent self-assessment allows students to take ownership when evaluating
their performance the previous period, which “…is probably a strength of the
program.” (Fouts, 1999, p. 11) Student involvement in the
disciplinary process allows them to develop interpersonal communication skills
and teaches them to learn from their mistakes. (Bowman, 1983 & Kuder,
1986) The affirmation portion of self-assessment, concerns, has both
strengths and the potential for misuse. According to Fouts, (1999) in
assessing this component of Make Your Day
“My observation is that
this is a relatively effective way to handle conflicts between students and to
provide some type of recourse for the quieter, less assertive students to have
their concerns addressed and their rights protected. I ill add here that I
recognize the potential for abuse of this process. But with all
citizenship/discipline programs there are certain trade-offs, advantages and
disadvantages in ways of dealing with student-to-student problems. In
this instance, on balance and when properly conducted, this procedure can be
quite beneficial in protecting students’ rights, holding students accountable
for their treatment of others, and teaching students what is acceptable and
unacceptable behavior around others.” (p. 11)
The Center for the Study
and Prevention of Violence in the Fact Sheet How Students Can Avoid School
Victimization (1998) concurs by advocating that students should be taught
to understand that “Telling is not tattling…immediately inform school
officials of any bullying, victimizations, and/or threats.” (p. 1) Students
should inform adults of any concerns, but also learn to be assertive by
appropriately defending themselves in a non-aggressive manner. Dwyer,
Osher, & Warger (1998) state, “Effective schools also foster positive student
interpersonal relations—they encourage students to help each other and to feel
comfortable assisting others in getting help when needed.”
Classroom instruction is
begun with academic and behavioral expectations, which emphasizes the focus on
learning. (Berliner, 1986; Montero-Sieburth, 1989; & Sanford et al., 1983)
High expectations for behavior and achievement are conveyed, however,
individual differences are supported. (Dwyer, Osher, & Warger, 1998)
The school-wide approach,
which Make Your Day provides, is aligned with research-based procedures as
described on the OSEP Technical Assistance Center website in School-wide
Support: Proactive Approach to School-Wide Discipline.
1. Behavioral
Expectations are Defined. A small number of clearly defined behavioral
expectations are defined in positive, simple rules.
2.
Behavioral Expectations are Taught. The behavioral expectations
are taught to all students in the building, and are taught in real contexts.
The goals of the teaching are to take broad expectations (like Be Respectful),
and provide specific behavioral examples (In class: being respectful means
raising your hand when you want to speak or get help. During lunch or in the
hall: being respectful means using a person's name when you talk to him or
her). Teaching appropriate behavior involves much more than simply telling
students what behaviors they should avoid. Behavioral expectations are taught
using the same teaching formats applied to other curricula. The general rule
presented, the rationale for the rule is discussed, positive examples (“right
way”) are described and rehearsed, and negative examples (“wrong way”) are
described and modeled. Students are given an opportunity to practice the
“right way” until they demonstrate fluent performance.
3.
Appropriate Behaviors are Acknowledged. Once appropriate behaviors have
been defined and taught, they need to be acknowledged on a regular basis. Some
schools do this through formal systems (tickets, rewards), others do it
through social events. Schools that are successful in creating a competent
culture typically establish a pattern in which adult interactions with
students are “positive” four times as often as they are “negative”. To achieve
this standard, some strategy is needed to build and maintain positive adult
initiations to students (both in class and outside of class).
4. Behavioral
Errors are Corrected Proactively. When students violate behavioral
expectations, clear procedures are needed for providing information to them
that they behavior was unacceptable, and preventing that unacceptable behavior
from resulting in inadvertent rewards. Students, teachers, and administrators
all should be able to predict what will occur when behavioral errors are
identified.
Make Your Day is the
universal intervention or school-wide system that supports 80-90% of the
students. Those students who are at-risk (5-15%) or have chronic problem
behaviors (1-7%) are quickly identified and supported through specialized
group interventions such as social skills groups or specialized individual
interventions such as functional behavioral assessments that drive an
individualized behavioral support plan. (Sugai, et al., 1999)
Parent participation and
communication are an integral component of the Make Your Day model. (Gips &
Burdin, 1983) Continuous efforts to involve parents by informing them
about school discipline policies, routine updates on their children’s
behavior, and involvement in the school-wide discipline procedures are common
practice for safe and effective schools. (Dwyer, Osher, & Warger, 1998)
Amendments to the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) became law on June 4, 1997.
Positive behavioral support (PBS) and functional behavioral assessment (FBA)
were two of the concepts introduced to address the needs of students whose
behavior exceeds the school norms. These methods are not new, however,
the challenge has been to “fit” them into the “regular” school setting in
which negative behaviors are minimized and positive behaviors are promoted..
Sugai & Horner (1994; 1999) and Zins & Ponti (1990) suggest that “host
environments,” which use effective practices, provide a systemic solution.
“Effective host environments have policies (e.g., proactive discipline
handbooks, procedural handbooks), structures (e.g., behavioral support teams),
and routines (e.g., opportunities for students to learn expected behavior,
staff development, data-based decision making) that promote the
identification, adoption, implementation, and monitoring of research-validated
practices.” (Sugai, et al, 1999)
“Schoolwide strategies
create a foundation that is more responsive to children in general—one that
makes interventions for individual children more effective and efficient.”
(Dwyer, Osher, & Warger, 1998, p. 19) A small percentage of students are
in need of additional support in the areas of interpersonal relationships and
development of positive social skills. More attention to teaching
strategies that decrease impulsivity and increase effective listening are
critical supports. (Dwyer, Osher, & Warger, 1998) The application of
Make Your Day, a school-wide program, provides a universal structure in which
the majority of students are successful – a host environment. Those
students who are truly in need of small group or individual interventions are
quickly identified, which allows supports to be put in place in a timely
fashion. Through the information gained from functional behavioral
assessments (FBAs), the school-wide program, Make Your Day, can be modified to
encourage positive behavior and decrease problem behaviors. The goal for
all students with behavioral challenges is that they will be able to be
successful within the universal structure.
